[1] W. Geiger, Ostiranische Kultur im Altertum, Erlangen, 1882, pp.438-50

[2] 14.8-1l

[3] E. Benveniste, "Les classes sociales dans la tradition avestique," JA, 1932, pp. 117 ff.; I. Gershevitch, The Avestan Hymn to Mithra, Cambridge, 1959, p. 170

[4] Geiger, op. cit., p. 438

[5] ibid., p. 439

[6] Air Wb., col. 1617

[7] cf. Yt. 13.39

[8] Yt. 10.8

[9] Geiger, op. cit., pp. 439-40

[10] Benveniste, op. cit., pp. 353f.

[11] Geiger, op. cit., pp. 439ff., 353f.

[12] ibid., pp.443-49

[13] ibid., p.444

[14] ibid., pp. 443f.

[15] R. Ghirshman, Iran from the Earliest Times to the Islamic Conquest, Harmondsworth, 1954, pp. 73 ff.

[16] ibid., p. 76

[17] ibid., pp. 79-80

[18] ibid., p. 84

[19] ibid., p.87

[20] R. Moorey, Catalogue of the Ancient Persian Bronzes in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 1971, pp. 249ff.; I. J. Winter, A Decorated Breastplate from Hassanlu, Iran, University Museum Monograph 39, 1980

[21] Ghirshman, op. cit., pp. 88-89; I. M. D'yakonov, Istoriya Midii, Moscow and Leningrad, 1956, pp. 156ff.

[22] D'yakonov, op. cit., p. 222 n. 4

[23] Herodotus 1.103, 7.61-2

[24] Herodotus 7.b1 2; Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.3.2; 8.2.40.13f.

[25] G. Walser, Die Volkerschaften auf den Reliefs von Persepolis, Berlin, 1966, pp.70ff. and passim; G. Widengren, "Some Remarks on Riding Costume and Articles of Dress among Iranian Peoples in Antiquity," in Arctica, Studio Ethnographica Upsalensia I, 1956, pp. 228ff.

[26] Herodotus 1.103

[27] D'yakonov, op. cit., p. 295

[28] Behistun 2.82, 85

[29] Herodotus 1.74

[30] D'yakonov, op. cit., pp. 223ff.

[31] see especially G. Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World 111, London, 1871, pp. 172ff.; E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums [1939 ed., Stuttgart] IV/1, pp. 63-73; W. Hinz, Darius and die Perser 11, Baden-Baden, 1979, pp. 135-50

[32] A. Bovon, "La representation des guerriers perses et la notion du barbare dans la Ire moitie du Ve siecle," Bulletin de correspondence heWnique 87, 1963, pp. 579602

[33] V. v. Graeve, Der Alexander sarkophag and seine Werkstatt, Berlin, 1970, pp. 951

[34] Herodotus 1.125

[35] see W. Brandenstein and M. Mayrhofer, Handbuch des Altpersischen, Wiesbaden, 1966, p. 129

[36] C. Hignett, Xerxes' Invasion of Greece, Oxford, 1963, pp. 40ff.

[37] Darius, Persepolis e, 13ff.

[38] 3.90ff.; 7.61 ff.

[39] see in general P. J. Junge, Dareios I. Konig der Perser, Leipzig, 1944

[40] Rawlinson, op. cit., pp. 172ff.; Meyer, op. cit., pp. 64ff.; Hinz, op. cit., pp. 137ff.; M. Ehtecham, L'Iran sous les Achemmenides, Freiburg, 1946 [revised Persian version: Iran dar zamān-e Haxāmanešiān, Tehran, 1976, pp. 57ff.]

[41] Ionians and Aeolians in the army of Cyrus: Herodotus 1.171; in the army of Cambyses: ibid. 3.1.25

[42] Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.21

[43] for Greek mercenaries in Iranian service see H. W. Parke, Greek Mercenary Soldiers, Oxford, 1933; J. Roy, "The Mercenaries of Cyrus," Historia 16, 1967, pp.287-323; G. F. Seibt, Griechische Soldner im Achaimenidenreich, Bonn, 1977

[44] Simonides cited by Herodotus 7.228

[45] Herodotus 7.185f.

[46] Hignett, op. cit., p. 355

[47] Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.12

[48] E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums V [1921 ed.,Stuttgart], p. 185

[49] Arrian, Anabasis 2.8.8; 3.8.6

[50] E. W. Marsdon, The Campaign of Gaugamela, Liverpool, 1964, p. 37

[51] Hignett, op. cit., pp. 344ff.

[52] Hignett, ibid., p.42

[53] Hint, op. cit., p. 135

[54] on the term see W. Hinz, Altiranisches Sprachgut der Nebenuberlieferungen, Weisbaden, 1975, p. 87 with literature

[55] Hint, op. cit., p. 240

[56] J. Marquart, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte von Eran I, Gottingen, 1896, p.57

[57] Marquart, op. cit., p. 19 n. 84

[58] Xenophon, Hellenica 1.4.1-4

[59] five of the eleven sons of Darius the Great fell on the front: Ariabignes [Herodotus 7.89], Achaemenes [ibid., 3.12; 6.7.], Arsāmes [Aeschylus, Persae 36f., 310], Abrocomas, and Hyperanthes [Herodotus 7.224].

[60] Strabo 15.3.18,19; Hero dotus 1.136, 9.122; Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.2.9-11

[61] Herodotus 1.209; Strabo 15.3.19

[62] Strabo 15.3.19

[63] Darius, Naqš-e Rostam b, 40-45, tr. Kent, Old Persian, p. 140

[64] Herodotus 7.61, cf. Rawlinson, op. cit., pp. 174ff.; Hinz, Darius and die Perser II, pp. 140ff.

[65] Walser, Die Volkerschafren, pp. 65, 93ff.

[66] P. H. Rahe, "The Military Situation in Western Asia on the Eve of Cunaxa," American Journal of Philology 101, 1980, pp.82f

[67] Herodotus 9.61, 102

[68] Walser, op. cit., pis. 28, 77; Hinz, op. cit., pl. 14

[69] Hignett, op. cit., p. 44 with references

[70] Herodotus 7.41

[71] Herodotus 3.139

[72] F. Justi, "Der Chiliarch des Dareios," ZDMG 50, 1896, pp.659-64; Marquart, op. cit., pp. 57-63; P. J. Junge, "Hazarapatis," Klio 33, 1940, pp. 13-39; E. Benveniste, Titres et noms propres en iranien ancien, Paris, 1961, pp. 67-70.

[73] Herodotus 9.63

[74] Herodotus 7.87 where his "Persians" must be understood in the sense of Iranians, as Persis alone could not furnish such an army

[75] A. T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, Chicago, 1948, pp. 23839 describes the dress

[76] Herodotus 7.41

[77] Herodotus 7.41

[78] Anabasis 1.8.3; The Art of Horsemanship 12.12

[79] the Chwarazmians had formed heavy cavalry units-predecessors of the Parthian Cataphracti by Cyrus' time: B. Rubins, "Die Entstehung der Kataphraktenreiterei im Lichte der chorezmischen Ausgrabungen," Historia 4, 1955, pp. 264f.; for remnants of lamellar armor from Persepolis see E. F. Schmidt, Persepolis II, Chicago, 1957, p.100 with p1.77

[80] E. Ebeling, "Die Rustung eines babylonischen Panzerreiters nach einem Vertrage aus der Zeit Darius II," ZA, N.F. 16, 1952 pp. 204-13, esp. p. 210

[81] Arrian, Anabasis 3.8

[82] Xenophon, Anabasis 1.10.12, Q. Curtius 3.3.10

[83] Hinz, Altiranisches Sprachgut, p. 115

[84] Herodotus 4.43, 7.37, cf. 1.190

[85] Rawlinson, op. cit., pp. 192f.; Meyer, op. cit., pp. 66ff

[86] Herodotus 7.40; Xenophon, Cyropaedia 8.3.12; Q. Curtius 3.8.11

[87] Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.11; Arrian, Anabasis 2.8

[88] Herodotus 8.98

[89] Aristotle, de Mundo 398'

[90] Hinz, Darius 11, p. 146

[91] e.g. Cilician Gates: Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.21; Arrian, Anabasis 2.4; The Caspian Gates, Arrian, ibid., 3.2.; The Persian Gates: ibid., 3.18.2

[92] Rawlinson, op. cit., pp. 188ff, with references

[93] ibid., pp. 190f.

[94] Herodotus 1.90.208; Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.5; Darius, Behistun 3.86ff.

[95] there were units of them: Xenophon, Anabasis 3.3.6, 4.16; Q. Curtius 4.14; Strabo 15.3.18

[96] C. Foss, "A Bullet of Tissaphernes," Journal of Hellenic Studies 95, 1975, pp. 25-30

[97] Hignett, Xerxes' Invasion of Greece, p.44 with n. 6

[98] see especially W. W. How, "Arms, Tactics, and Strategy in the Persian Wars," Journal of Hellenic Studies 43, 1923, pp. 117ff.; Hignett, op. cit., pp. 40ff. with extensive documentation; Rabe, op. cit., 79ff.

[99] Herodotus 9.62

[100] Rawlinson, op. cit., pp.186-87 with references

[101] Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.12-13

[102] Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.6, cf. The Art of Horsemanship 12.8-10 and P. Bernard in Syria 41, 1964, pp. 195-216; J. K. Anderson in Journal of Hellenic Studies 80, 1960, p. 9; A. Sh. Shahbazi, Irano-Gycian Monuments, Tehran, 1975, pp. 140-42

[103] Xenophon, Anabasis 3.2.18-19; cf. Rahe, op. cit., p. 85

[104] Rawlinson, op. cit., pp. 193ff. with references

[105] Darius, Behistun 1-5

[106] Herodotus 8.90

[107] Behistun 4.80ff.

[108] Diodorus 17.14

[109] Herodian 3.1

[110] Pliny, Natural History 2.26

[111] Herodian, loc. cit

[112] E. Herzfeld, Altpersische lnschriften, Berlin, 1938, pp.313f.

[113] Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 18.9.2, 22.3.4; on the mercenaries in general see J. Wolski, "Le role et 1'importance des mercenaries dans l'etat parthe," Iranica Antigua 5, 1965, pp. 103ff.

[114] V. G. Lukonin in Camb. Hist. Iran III/2, 1983, p. 700

[115] Plutarch, Crassus 19; Appian, Bella civilia 2.18

[116] Lukonin, loc. cit.

[117] Lukonin, ibid.

[118] Plutarch, Crassus 2l

[119] Justin 41.2

[120] Justin, loc. cit.; Plutarch, Crassus 24; G. Rawlinson, The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy, London, 1873, p. 405

[121] Plutarch, Crassus 24

[122] ibid., 18, 24, 25; Justin, loc. cit.; on the description of the armour worn by the cataphracti given by the third-century story writer Heliodorus of Emesa, Aethiopica 9.15, see F. Rundgren, " LJber einige iranische Lehnworter im Lateinischen and Griechischen," Orientalia Suecana 6, 1957, pp.31-65 esp. pp.33ff. with references

[123] A. D. H. Bivar, "Cavalry Equipment and Tactics on the Euphrates Frontier," Dumbarton Oaks Paper 26, 1972, pp. 273f.

[124] Justin, loc. cit., Plutarch, Crassus 24

[125] M. I. Rostovtzeff, The Excavations at Dura-Europos: Preliminary Report of the Second Season, New Haven, 1931, pp. 194ff.

[126] idem, Caravan Cities, Oxford, 1932, p. 195; F. E. Brown, "Sketch of the History of Horse Armour," in M. I. Rostovtzeff and A. R. Bellinger, eds., The Excavations at Dura-Europos: Preliminary Report of the Sixth Season of Work, New Haven, 1936, pp. 444ff.

[127] Plutarch, Crassus 27, Antony 45; Dio Cassius 40.22; Herodian 4.30

[128] Plutarch, Crassus 27

[129] Plutarch, Crassus 18, 24; see further Rawlinson, op. cit., p. 404; N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia, Chicago, 1938, p. 86; F. E. Brown, "A Recently Discovered Compound Bow," Seminarium Kondakovianum 9, 1937, pp. 1-10

[130] Rawlinson, loc. cit.

[131] On the cataphract see in more detail O. Gamber, "Grundriss einer Geschichte der Schutzwaffen des Altertums," Jahrbuch der kunsthistorischen Sammlungen in Wien 52, 1966, pp. 7ff. esp. pp.49-52; idem, "Katafrakten, Clibanarii, Normanenreiter," ibid., 64, 1968, pp. 7ff.; B. Rubins's summary of Drevnii Khorezm by S. P. Tolstov, Moscow, 1948, in Historia 4, 1955, pp. 264ff.

[132] Herodian 4.28, 30

[133] ibid.

[134] Rawlinson, op. cit., pp. 406ff.

[135] Plutarch, Antony 38

[136] Plutarch, Crassus 23, 26; Justin 41.2; Herodian 4.30

[137] M. L. Rostovtzeff, "The Parthian Shot," AJA 47, 1943, p. 174ff.

[138] Dio Cassius 41.24

[139] Plutarch, Crassus 25, see further Rawlinson, op. sit., pp. 160f.; 402ff.

[140] G. Widengren, "Iran, der grosse Gegner Roms: Konigsgewalt, Feudalismus, Militarwesen," in H. Temporini and W. Haase, eds., Aufstieg and Niedergang der romischen Welt II/9.1, 1976, 220ff. esp. pp. 281f.

[141] Lucian cited by A. Christensen, Smeden Kavah og det Gamle Persiske Rigsbanner, Copenhagen, 1919, pp. 23 f. [tr. J. M. Unvala, "The Smith Kavehand the Ancient Persian Imperial Banner," Journal of the Cama Oriental Institute 5, 1925, pp. 22ff. esp. p. 37 n. 2]

[142] Justin 41.2

[143] Bivar, op. sit., pp.274-75

[144] Christensen, op. sit., tr. Unvala, pp. 37f.

[145] ibid., p. 39

[146] Plutarch, Crassus 29; Antony 47

[147] Rawlinson, op. sit., p.409

[148] for details see E. Gabba, "Sidle influenze reciproche degli ordinamenti militari dei Parti e dei Romani," in La Persia a il mondo greco-romano. Rome, 1966, pp. 51ff.

[149] Bivar, op. sit., p. 275

[150] Christensen, Iran Sass., p. 98

[151] ibid., pp. 166f.

[152] Dio Cassius 80.4.2; Herodian 6.2.2

[153] Agathangelos [Greek version] 1.8

[154] Tabari tr. Noldeke, Geschichte der Perser, p.5

[155] Christensen, op. sit., p. 207

[156] Ammianus Marcellinus 23.6.83

[157] ibid.

[158] Rundgren, Orientalia Suecana 6, 1957, pp. 35ff.

[159] e.g. Ammianus Marcellinus 16.10.8

[160] Rundgren, op. sit., pp. 48f., evidently unaware that the Pahlavi grīwbān "neck-guard" is attested in Vendidad 14.9: AN. W. Jackson, "Herodotus VII. 61, or the Arms of the Ancient Persians Illustrated from Iranian Sources," in Classical Studies in Honour of Henri, Drisler, New York, 1894, pp. 95ff. esp. p. 118

[161] Ammianus Marcellinus 25.1.12-13, cf. 24.6.8

[162] E. Herzfeld, AM191 1938, pp. 91 ff.

[163] A. D. H. Bivar, "The Stirrup and its origins," Oriental Art, N.S. 1, 1965, pp.61-65

[164] E. F. Schmidt, Persepolis III, Chicago, 1970, p. 135

[165] Tabarī, I, p. 964 [tr. Noldeke, pp. 248f.]; Bal'ami, TarIkh, p. 1048; Ferdowsī Šāhnāma VIII, p.63

[166] Jackson, loc. cit.

[167] Bivar in Dumbarton Oaks Papers 26, 1972, pp. 287-88

[168] C. A. Inostrantsev, "Sasanian Military Theory," tr. L. Bogdanov in Journal of the Cama Oriental Institute 7, 1926, pp. 7ff. esp. p.23

[169] Noldeke, Geschichte der Perser, pp. 248f.; Jackson, op. cit., pp. 108ff.

[170] Christensen, Iran Sass., p.208 with references

[171] Socrates Scholasticus 7.20

[172] Christensen, op. cit., p. 210

[173] ibid., pp. 112, 368-69; J. M. Unvala, The Pahlavi Text "King qusrav and his Boy," Paris, 1921

[174] Ammianus Marcellinus 19.2.3

[175] Agathias 3.17

[176] Christensen, op. cit., pp. 209, 275

[177] Ammianus Marcellinus 24.6.8

[178] ibid., 23.6.83

[179] ibid., 23.6.83; Procopius 1.14.24, 52; Christensen, op. cit., p.209

[180] Ammianus Marcellinus 25.1.14; see also E. Herzfeld AMI 3, 1931, pp.26ff.

[181] contra Alexander Severus in Lampridius, Vita Alex. Sev. 56

[182] Ammianus Marcellinus 19.5f., 20.6-7, I1

[183] Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, p. 284 n. 2

[184] Ferdowsī, Šāhnāma VIII, p. 343

[185] Tabari, tr. Nöldeke, p. 271

[186] Christensen, op. cit., p. 210

[187] A. Christensen, Smeden Kāväh, tr. Unvala, pp. 28f.

[188] M. Grignaschi, "Quelques specimens de la litterature sassanide conserves dans les bibliotheques d'Istanbul," JA, 1966, pp. I ff. esp. pp. 24, 42 n. 76

[189] q.v.

[190] Nöldeke, op. cit., p. 5 n. 3

[191] Christensen, Iran Sass., pp. 130f.

[192] q.v., Greek rendering adrastadaran salanes: Procopius 1.6.18

[193] Christensen, op. cit., pp. 131, 370

[194] ibid., pp. 107-108

[195] ibid., pp. 102, 108, 371ff.; 518ff.

[196] ibid., pp. 108, 351, 507

[197] ibid., p.210

[198] ibid.

[199] ibid.

[200] ibid., pp. 367ff.

[201] Journal of the Cama Oriental Institute 7, 1926, pp. 7-52; see also Christensen, op. cit., pp. 215f.

[202] Sanjana's tr. in Dēnkard, vol. XVI, Bombay,1917, pp. 6ff.

[203] Inostrantsev, op. cit., pp. 13ff.

[204] ibid., pp. 16ff.; Bivar, op. cit., pp. 289f.

[205] Ammianus Marcellinus 25.1.18

[206] Christensen, op. cit., p. 216

[207] Johannes Malalas [in B. G. Niebuhr, ed., Hist. Byzant. Scriptores, Bonn, 18311, p. 14a

[208] Schmidt, Persepolis III, pp. 130ff.

[209] R. Ghirshman, Iran 249 B.C.-A.D. 651: The Parthian and Sassanian Dynasties, London, 1962, fig. 195

[210] Hamza, pp.50-54; Mojmal, pp. 33ff.

[211] Bivar, op. cit., p. 284

[212] e. g., Shapur's inscription on the Ka'ba-ye Zardošt, and cf. Ebrahim b. Mohammad Bayhaqi, al-Mohasen wa'lmosawi, ed. F. Schwally, Giessen, 1902, p. 481